HSPMC: Training Guide-Emerging Literacy: Linking Social Competence to Learning (Appendix D)

Training Guides for the Head Start Learning Community:
Emerging Literacy: Linking Social Competence to Learning
Appendix D

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Playing the Conversation Game*

Conversations are nonverbal and verbal interactions between two or more people. During conversations, the participants exchange information and enjoy one another's company. They talk with each other, as equal partners. Learning to be a conversation partner is similar to learning how to play a game that is governed by rules. The rules of conversation may vary in different cultures, but generally include taking turns, paying attention to the speaker, adding to the topic being discussed, and letting others know when leaving the conversation. When the conversation partners follow the rules, the game is successful and enjoyable. When the partners do not, the conversation may end abruptly or result in miscommunications. This appendix discusses how families and Head Start staff can engage children of different ages in conversations and help them become skilled conversation partners.
Adults Take Most of the Turns
Very young babies (birth to about eight months) do not know that they can communicate intentionally. Nevertheless, babies can begin learning how to take turns in the conversation game. Adults teach babies about taking turns by responding to cries, coos, smiles, gurgles, and gazes as if babies were sending messages on purpose. In addition, adults can play games with babies. At first, adults will take most of the turns in these games. Over time, babies begin to take turns more often by smiling, cooing, or reaching for a toy. The picture on page D-2, Ms. H. Takes Most of the Turns, depicts a young baby learning about taking turns.
Older Babies Learn to Take Turns
Many older babies (about eight to thirteen months) know a lot about conversation. They can:

Pay attention to the speaker

Take turns at the appropriate times

Let the other person take turns

Continue the conversation by taking more turns

To help older babies become skilled conversational partners, adults can:

Play games that are fun for babies

Change a game slightly so babies learn to take turns in different situations

Make up new games in response to babies' sounds and actions

Play the same games often so babies can connect the words and actions

Respond to babies' sounds and actions as if they were starting a new game

Set the stage for a game so the baby can initiate it herself (for example, store toys within the baby's reach)

One-Year-Olds Can Start Conversations
By the time babies enter the second year of life (about twelve to eighteen months) they can participate in conversation games and start them. They take turns and play different roles at different times.

In the example on page D-5, Jane Starts a Game, Ms. H. plays a much more limited role than when she first introduced Jane to the conversation game. Jane has already learned a lot about conversations such as:

Anyone can start a conversation.

People take turns in conversations.

One person talks while the others listen.

When someone is talking, it is your turn to listen.

When that person has finished talking, it is your turn to talk.

She is ready for new conversational challenges.
Toddlers, Two-Year-Olds, And Preschoolers Learn to Be Conversation Partners
At about eighteen months, most children speak in short sentences. They are ready to learn how to be equal and active conversational partners. Their first conversations are with an adult. Soon they can converse with another child or a small group. By talking with adults and peers, children gradually learn the following conversational skills:

When you start or join a conversation:
-- Say something to someone
-- Wait for a response

When someone else is speaking:
-- Look at the person
-- Listen to what he or she is saying
-- Wait until he or she has finished before responding

When it is your turn to speak:
-- Add some information related to what the previous speaker said
-- Ask questions if you do not understand what someone said
-- Stick to the topic being discussed
-- Keep it short so someone else can have a turn

When you want to keep the conversation going--say something new about the topic

When you are finished with the conversation--let your partner(s) know
Making Conversations a Natural Part of the Day
Most children are eager to participate when conversations are natural, social events. They are less likely to be interested when conversations are used to teach skills or test knowledge. Throughout the day, Head Start staff and families have many opportunities to help children learn about conversations through one-on-one and small group interactions. These opportunities occur during routines such as when children are getting ready for bed or while adults and children do chores together such as wiping the tables before snack. The following examples show adults talking with children during daily events

While helping Xena put on her boots, Mr. P. talks with her about what she wants to do outdoors--You're going to build a snow lady. That sounds like fun.

At the laundromat, Mr. W. responds to Dion's question about how the dryer works--Remember how the clothes feel when we take them out of the dryer?

During a group socialization session, Mrs. E. helps the children sitting at her family-style breakfast table learn how to listen without interrupting each other--Yasmine, it's Imani's turn to talk now. You can have a turn when he's finished.

At the dinner table, Dawn's family talks about a gathering they will be going to--Dawn, this will be your first time seeing the dancers. If you sit next to me, I'll tell you what the dances are about.

At the sand table, Ms. D. makes a comment to Charisse and David who are taking turns spraying water on the sand--Spraying water on the sand makes a pretty design. How does the wet sand feel?

While walking home from Head Start, Destiny and her dad get caught up on each other's day--Do you remember me waking you up before I left for the fields this morning? Destiny replies, Yep, but then I fell asleep, and grandma woke me up again.
Playing and Talking with Children
Another effective strategy for engaging children in conversation is to talk while playing together. Some children are more interested in talking when they have something concrete to talk about such as toys and materials. Another advantage of this strategy is that a child who may be reluctant to talk can take nonverbal and verbal turns. For example, Ms. Y. is playing and talking with Leon (three and a half years old) in the block area. She says, Your tower is very tall. Leon responds by placing another block on his tower. She makes another comment--Now it's even higher. This time he responds verbally, It's the tallest tower in the world.
Using Comments and Questions
Adults can engage children in conversations by making comments and asking questions. Children may not respond as quickly or as easily to comments as they do to questions. However, to become skilled conversational partners, children need to learn how to listen and respond to comments as well as questions.

Talking about Mud

Mrs. O. looks out the window and says, I don't think I've ever seen so much rain. (Her comment gets the conversation started.)

Marcus comes to the window and says, It's muddy outside. (He joins the conversation by adding information.)

Mrs. O. says, Yes, the rain is making the yard very muddy. How long do you think the yard will stay muddy? (She acknowledges Marcus' comment and asks a follow-up question to help him take another turn in the conversation.)

Questions can be good conversation starters when they are sincere and acknowledge a child's interests. When Bryanna shows Ms. A. a large pine cone, the teacher asks, Is that the biggest pine cone you ever saw? Ms. A. avoids the following kinds of questions because they do not start conversations:

Questions that test what a child knows--What kind of tree did that come from?

Questions that are overly simple, concrete, or obvious questions and don't need to be answered--What is that? That's a pine cone, isn't it?
Extending Conversations
Comments and questions are also effective ways to extend conversations with children. Extended conversations encourage children to be creative, solve problems, and use their imaginations. They use language to make sense of their own experiences and observations. Adults can extend children's conversations--and language skills--by offering explanations, explaining the meaning of new words and using them in conversations, inviting children to make predictions, and dropping into pretend play situations. My shoes are worn out. Can you please measure my feet? I hope your store has some new shoes to fit me.

Staying on the Topic
Many young children have a difficult time staying on the topic. Adults can repeat or reword a question to redirect the child back to the topic being discussed. In the following example, Mr. P.'s comments and questions help Ron stay on the topic, and keep the conversation going. He also models standard grammar rather than corrects Ron's language.

Ron Gets a Haircut

Ron starts the conversation, I gots my hair cut.

Mr. P. models standard grammar as he repeats what Ron said, Yes, I can see you got a haircut. He keeps the conversation going by asking a question, Did you go to the barber shop?

Ron strays off the topic, I ate pizza.

Mr. P. helps Ron get back to the topic by repeating the question, Did you get your hair cut at the barber shop?

Ron returns to the topic, Yep. Me and my dad went to the barber shop.

Mr. P. keeps the conversation going by making a comment and asking a question, I need a haircut. Do you think I would like the barber shop?

Ron answers the question and offers new information. Yeah, you would like it. He gived me a lollipop.

Mr. P. models standard grammar as he repeats what Ron said, The barber gave you a lollipop. He acknowledges Ron's previous comment by asking a question. Did you eat pizza after your haircut?

Ron answers the question and adds new information. Lots of pizza. Double-cheese pizza. He lets Mr. P. know he is leaving the conversation, See you later.
Supporting Small Group Conversations
In any group of young children, some will have more advanced language skills than their peers. These highly verbal children may dominate small group conversations. They often have a lot to say and may interrupt other children or speak for them. These situations call for gentle, but direct, reminders about taking turns, listening while others speak, staying on the topic, and so on. Intervening in this way helps both the verbal child and the child who has difficulty getting into the conversation. The verbal child improves his conversation skills, while the quieter child has more opportunities to express her ideas and feelings.

Head Start staff can use the following strategies to support children's involvement in group conversations and discussions:

Help all children join in the conversation. Assume that all children have something to say. Make it easier for a child to express her ideas by saying, Julia wants to add something she knows about trees.

Show respect for children's ideas. Try to figure out what a child means and invite him to say more. Tell us some more about your plans. Help children learn to encourage one another to extend their ideas. Frank had an interesting idea for what to do with this big box. Can anyone think of a question to ask him about his idea?

Help children stay on the topic. When a child says something that is unrelated to the topic, acknowledge the comment while gently steering her back to the topic at hand. Charisse, that's nice that you had waffles for breakfast. Do you have any ideas about what might have lived in this shell?

Encourage children to express their ideas clearly. Sometimes young children begin a story in the middle or leave out some important details. Help a child complete a story by saying, Inez, start at the beginning. We don't know where you went, so you have to tell us.

Make conversations interesting. Introduce topics related to children's activities and interests, build on children's past experiences, invite children to make comparisons, and ask questions that can be answered in several different ways. Pause to give children time to think before responding. Encourage children to add to the discussion by saying, Tell me more about that.

Summary
Children learn about the conversation game beginning in infancy, when family members and teachers such as Head Start staff talk and play with them. Children need a lot of practice to learn how to be equal partners in conversations. At first, adults not only take the lead in conversations, but also take most of the turns. Over time, as children learn more about the conversation game, they take more turns and eventually learn to start conversations. Holding conversations with children is one of the most effective ways to support their language development. When adults talk with children, they send important messages such as, I'm interested in what you are doing. Tell me more. I want to hear what you have to say.

* Based on Elaine Weitzman, Learning Language and Loving It: A Guide to Promoting Children's Social and Language Development in Early Childhood Settings (Toronto: The Hanen Centre, 1992), 103-136.
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